Introduction: A Land Divided Yet Unified in Spirit
In the early medieval period, Wales was a tapestry of warring kingdoms, each striving for power, land, and survival. The Old Welsh Kingdoms were more than just territories—they were bastions of cultural identity, resilience, and unyielding spirit. Between 800 and 1066 CE, these kingdoms faced not only internal rivalries but also external threats from the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons, who loomed on their eastern borders.
Unlike England or Scotland, Wales remained a collection of fragmented realms, fiercely independent yet interwoven by shared language and customs. Kingdoms such as Powys, Gwynedd, and Dyfed each rose to prominence, defending their lands from invaders while occasionally forging alliances to fend off greater threats. This era marked a turning point where the seeds of a Welsh identity were planted amid alliances, betrayals, and heroic stands against foreign incursion.
In this post, we’ll journey through the history of these Old Welsh Kingdoms, exploring how leaders like Rhodri Mawr and Hywel Dda attempted to unify the land, bring justice, and defend against Norse and Anglo-Saxon advances. Each kingdom had its role in the Welsh narrative, shaping the foundations of what would eventually become a unified Welsh identity. By the end, we’ll uncover why the legacy of these early Welsh rulers still resonates and what it meant for a land divided yet determined to preserve its culture.
The mountainous and rugged landscape of Wales was a significant factor in the development of separate kingdoms. Geographic isolation helped preserve a unique Welsh culture, distinct from Anglo-Saxon and later Norman influences.”
— John Davies, author of “A History of Wales”
High-Level Timeline of Old Welsh Kingdoms
- 800 – 850 CE: Wales, a Land of Fragmented Kingdoms – Wales is divided into independent kingdoms like Powys, Gwynedd, and Dyfed, each led by fierce leaders and shaped by the rugged terrain that keeps them distinct and proud.
- 9th Century CE: The Rise of Rhodri Mawr – A Unifier Emerges – Rhodri Mawr, known as “the Great,” rises as a ruler of Gwynedd, renowned for uniting Welsh lands and defending against Viking invasions.
- 850 – 900 CE: Viking Raids Hit Hard – Norse raiders strike Welsh coastal areas, challenging kingdoms like Gwynedd and Dyfed. Rhodri Mawr’s victories against them elevate him to hero status in Wales.
- 900 – 950 CE: Hywel Dda – The Lawmaker King – Hywel Dda unites Dyfed and Seisyllwg to form Deheubarth and establishes Cyfraith Hywel, a groundbreaking legal code focused on justice and community.
- 10th Century CE: Vikings Settle, Cultures Clash and Connect – Norse settlers establish themselves along the Welsh coast, leading to a blend of conflict and trade that challenges and enriches Welsh communities.
- Late 9th – Early 10th Century CE: Alliances with Anglo-Saxons – Pragmatism Over Pride – Welsh rulers, particularly in Powys, form alliances with Anglo-Saxons in Mercia and Wessex to strengthen their position against Viking threats.
- 950 – 1000 CE: The Rise of Deheubarth – Power and Purpose – Hywel Dda’s establishment of Deheubarth signals a movement towards unity in Wales, fostering a shared purpose in defence and governance.
The Rise of the Old Welsh Kingdoms
During the early medieval period, Wales was anything but a single, unified kingdom. Instead, it was a mosaic of smaller territories, each ruled by a dynasty with deep historical roots. The three main kingdoms—Powys, Gwynedd, and Dyfed—were central players in this period, each with its distinct challenges and opportunities. The mountainous terrain and rugged landscape of Wales naturally defined these boundaries, making travel and communication difficult and fostering a sense of independence within each region.
Powys
Positioned along the eastern border, Powys was often Wales’s first line of defence against Anglo-Saxon incursions. This kingdom had strong military traditions and frequently clashed with Mercia, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom vying for control over the Welsh borderlands. Powys’s geographical position meant that it was not only exposed to frequent attacks but also held strategic importance. Border towns and forts, like those near Offa’s Dyke, served as buffer zones, making Powys an indispensable player in resisting outside influence.
Gwynedd
To the northwest, Gwynedd was perhaps the most formidable of the Welsh kingdoms. Protected by mountains and sea, Gwynedd’s rulers wielded significant power, and their kingdom served as a cultural heartland for the Welsh people. This kingdom would go on to produce legendary leaders like Rhodri Mawr, whose efforts at unification were driven by the constant pressure of Viking raids. Gwynedd’s position allowed it to fend off Norse invasions more successfully than other regions, positioning it as a key player in Welsh resistance and cohesion.
Dyfed
In the southwest, Dyfed was culturally distinct, with influences from both Ireland and Wales, and held its own strategic advantages. Unlike Gwynedd and Powys, Dyfed was initially more isolated from external threats. However, as Viking raids reached its shores, the kingdom’s rulers were forced to adapt quickly. By the 10th century, Dyfed would merge with Seisyllwg to form Deheubarth, a powerful Welsh kingdom under Hywel Dda.
The fragmented nature of these kingdoms was both a blessing and a curse. On one hand, it allowed for cultural diversity and the preservation of unique local customs. On the other, it made the region vulnerable to larger, more unified enemies. But despite their differences, these Old Welsh Kingdoms shared an underlying goal: to protect Welsh lands and way of life against foreign influence.
Key Players in Welsh Power Dynamics
The early medieval period in Wales was defined by its leaders. While many kings sought control over their immediate territories, a few stood out for their vision and attempts to unite the Welsh against common enemies.
Rhodri Mawr: Defender and Unifier
Rhodri Mawr’s rule marked a significant turning point in Welsh history, as he was the first leader to successfully unite multiple Welsh territories under a single ruler, paving the way for future unification attempts.”
— Karen Jankulak, Professor of Medieval History, University of Wales Trinity Saint David
Rhodri Mawr, also known as Rhodri the Great, ruled Gwynedd in the 9th century and became one of the most iconic figures in Welsh history. Rhodri was both a warrior and a strategist, known for his battles against Viking invaders who threatened Welsh shores. Rhodri’s ambition was not just to defend Gwynedd but to extend his influence over other Welsh territories. His efforts marked one of the first significant attempts at unification, aiming to consolidate the fragmented Old Welsh Kingdoms under a single rule.
Rhodri’s success was not only in his military victories but also in forging alliances through marriage. By marrying into other Welsh royal families, he strengthened political ties across the region, effectively building a coalition that could resist Viking raids more effectively. This tactic of political unification through kinship and military might laid the groundwork for future leaders, making Rhodri a symbol of Welsh resilience and unity.
Hywel Dda: Lawgiver of Wales
Hywel Dda’s laws, documented as early as the 10th century, focused on social order and community responsibility. His code emphasized compensation over corporal punishment, a progressive approach that helped create a stable society across the fragmented kingdoms.
— Welsh Legal History Society, “The Laws of Hywel Dda”
A century after Rhodri Mawr, Hywel Dda emerged as a ruler with a different kind of vision. Known as “Hywel the Good,” he ruled Deheubarth in the early 10th century and was instrumental in creating a unified legal code for the Welsh people. His laws were not only progressive but deeply rooted in fairness and justice, reflecting a cultural shift from constant warfare to structured governance.
Hywel Dda’s legal reforms extended beyond Deheubarth, influencing neighbouring territories and setting a precedent for justice across Wales. His legacy as a lawmaker would have a lasting impact on the Old Welsh Kingdoms, providing a sense of shared identity and stability that helped unify the region in the face of external threats. Hywel’s legal code covered everything from property rights to marriage and kinship obligations, cementing his role as a visionary who saw beyond the battlefield.
Power Shifts from Dyfed to Deheubarth
The power dynamics within Old Welsh Kingdoms were constantly evolving, with regional shifts that redefined leadership across Wales. One of the most significant transitions was the rise of Deheubarth from the earlier kingdom of Dyfed in the 10th century. This shift wasn’t just about land and titles; it represented a growing ambition for unification and stability in the face of Viking and Anglo-Saxon threats.
Dyfed’s Early Influence
Dyfed, located in southwestern Wales, was known for its connections to Irish settlers, particularly during the 5th and 6th centuries. This early influence introduced cultural elements that made Dyfed somewhat distinct from other Welsh regions. For centuries, Dyfed operated independently, governed by its own kings who were more focused on local rule than regional expansion.
Formation of Deheubarth
The unification of Dyfed with the neighbouring kingdom of Seisyllwg under the rule of Hywel Dda created a larger, more powerful kingdom—Deheubarth. Hywel Dda’s marriage to the daughter of the ruler of Seisyllwg solidified this alliance and symbolised a shift from isolated territories to a vision of consolidated Welsh power. Deheubarth was stronger and more resilient than Dyfed alone, with resources and manpower that allowed it to compete with Gwynedd and Powys.
Significance of Deheubarth
Under Hywel Dda, Deheubarth became a model for governance and stability, with his legal reforms extending beyond its borders. The rise of Deheubarth marked a turning point where Welsh kingdoms began prioritising internal organisation over simply defending against external enemies. Deheubarth’s influence reached far beyond its borders, setting a precedent for a unified Welsh identity rooted in law, culture, and shared governance.
The transition from Dyfed to Deheubarth was more than a political rebranding; it symbolised the beginning of a shift in the Welsh psyche, where the idea of a cohesive and unified Wales began to take root. This power shift also signalled to neighbouring kingdoms that Wales could rally its territories under a shared cause, an idea that would grow stronger in the centuries to come.
The Constant Threat of Viking Raids
Viking raids on Welsh coastal communities began in earnest in the 9th century, targeting religious sites and leaving lasting scars on Welsh society. Yet, these attacks ultimately strengthened internal alliances as Welsh rulers united against the Norse threat.”
— David Griffiths, author of “The Vikings in Wales”
From the 9th to the 11th centuries, Viking incursions were a recurring menace for the Old Welsh Kingdoms. Wales’s position along the western coast made it vulnerable to raids from Norsemen who swept down from Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia in search of land and wealth. While the Anglo-Saxons had their own struggles with Viking invaders, the fragmented nature of the Welsh kingdoms made them particularly susceptible.
Early Raids and Their Impact
The earliest recorded Viking raid in Wales took place in 852 CE when Norse fleets attacked the island of Anglesey, a crucial stronghold for the kingdom of Gwynedd. This raid set a grim precedent, showing the Welsh rulers that they faced not just occasional skirmishes but a sustained threat from the sea. Viking attacks were swift and brutal, often targeting religious centres and settlements rich in resources. This forced the Welsh kingdoms to adapt their defensive strategies, pooling resources and seeking alliances to fend off repeated invasions.
Rhodri Mawr’s Defence Efforts
The famous Welsh king Rhodri Mawr (Rhodri the Great) was among the first to mount a structured resistance against the Vikings. His rule in the 9th century saw numerous battles with Norse invaders, and his military successes earned him a legendary reputation. In 856, Rhodri achieved a decisive victory over a Viking force, bolstering his authority and proving that the Welsh could stand against the Norse threat. This victory not only secured his position within Gwynedd but also extended his influence, as other Welsh rulers looked to him for leadership.
Lasting Viking Influence
Despite Rhodri’s efforts, Viking raids persisted into the 10th and 11th centuries. Some Norsemen even established settlements along the Welsh coast, creating semi-permanent bases that enabled them to continue raiding inland. These interactions weren’t entirely negative; in some cases, trade relationships developed, and Welsh communities absorbed elements of Norse culture. However, the Vikings’ presence continually destabilised the region, reinforcing the need for Welsh unity and resilience.
The Viking threat was a catalyst for many Welsh leaders, pushing them toward collaboration and collective defence. Rhodri Mawr’s legacy as a defender against the Vikings became a rallying point, inspiring future generations to resist both Viking and Anglo-Saxon encroachments. Over time, the lessons learned from Viking raids helped strengthen Welsh military tactics and political alliances.
Anglo-Saxon Alliances and Rivalries
Welsh kings formed alliances with Anglo-Saxon rulers out of both necessity and pragmatism. These shifting alliances illustrate the strategic diplomacy employed by Welsh rulers to maintain autonomy while managing external threats.”
— Professor Wendy Davies, historian of early medieval Britain
While Viking raids posed a significant threat from the west, the Anglo-Saxons loomed to the east. Relations between the Welsh kingdoms and their Anglo-Saxon neighbours were complex, shifting between alliances and open conflict depending on circumstances and leadership. The Welsh rulers often had to balance diplomacy with resistance, forming alliances with Anglo-Saxon kingdoms when it suited their interests but standing their ground when independence was at risk.
Mercia and Powys
The kingdom of Mercia, one of the prominent Anglo-Saxon realms, had long-standing interests in Welsh territories, particularly in the border region of Powys. For centuries, Mercia and Powys were in a near-constant state of tension, with Mercia attempting to assert dominance over the Welsh kingdom. However, there were moments of cooperation. For example, some Welsh kings recognised Mercian overlordship in exchange for protection or trade benefits. This complex relationship saw Powys frequently caught in the middle, balancing loyalty to Welsh identity with the necessity of coexisting with Mercia.
Alliances with Wessex
Another important Anglo-Saxon kingdom, Wessex, also played a role in Welsh affairs. Wessex rulers, particularly during the reign of Alfred the Great, sought alliances with Welsh kingdoms to bolster their defence against Viking incursions. In the late 9th century, Alfred formed alliances with some Welsh kings, recognising their sovereignty and establishing cooperative defence pacts. These alliances were strategic, allowing the Welsh to maintain their autonomy while benefiting from the military strength of Wessex.
Fluctuating Loyalties and Power Plays
Anglo-Saxon and Welsh relations were rarely straightforward. Welsh rulers would often shift their loyalties based on immediate threats, sometimes allying with Anglo-Saxon kings against rival Welsh lords or Viking invaders. This fluid approach to alliances made it difficult for any one kingdom, Welsh or Anglo-Saxon, to exert lasting control over the region. These shifting loyalties reflected the realities of a time when survival often depended on pragmatism over steadfast alliances.
The Anglo-Saxon interactions were pivotal for the Old Welsh Kingdoms. They highlighted the Welsh rulers’ skill in diplomacy, as they balanced alliances with assertive defiance to maintain their territories. These relationships also influenced the development of Welsh military strategies and governance, as Welsh kings adapted Anglo-Saxon methods to suit their own needs. In many ways, the Anglo-Saxon influence was as instrumental as Viking invasions in shaping the political landscape of Wales.
A Kingdom at the Crossroads – Powys
Offa’s Dyke, constructed by the Mercian king Offa in the 8th century, served as a physical and symbolic boundary between Wales and Mercia. Though the exact purpose remains debated, most historians agree it was both a defensive structure and a statement of power over the Welsh borderlands.
— British Archaeological Reports, “Studies in Offa’s Dyke”
Among the Old Welsh Kingdoms, Powys held a unique and precarious position. Situated along the eastern border of Wales, it stood as both a buffer and a gateway between the Anglo-Saxon world and the Welsh heartlands. Powys’s geographical location placed it directly in the path of expanding Anglo-Saxon powers, particularly Mercia, and made it one of the first Welsh territories to encounter external influence and pressure.
Borderland Tensions with Mercia
As one of the primary Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercia often looked westward toward Powys as an area ripe for influence and control. The rivalry between Mercia and Powys was one of frequent skirmishes, shifting boundaries, and, at times, uneasy truces. In the 8th century, Offa’s Dyke was constructed along the Welsh-English border, an earthwork fortification that ran along much of Powys’s eastern edge. While the exact purpose of Offa’s Dyke remains debated, it likely served as both a defensive measure and a symbol of Mercian power. For Powys, the dyke represented a physical reminder of the Anglo-Saxon threat that loomed just across the border.
Powys’s Resilience and Strategy
Despite constant pressure from Mercia, Powys maintained its autonomy and, in many ways, became a symbol of Welsh resilience. The kingdom’s rulers had to be adept diplomats, carefully balancing alliances with other Welsh kingdoms and managing relations with Anglo-Saxon neighbours. This strategic mindset enabled Powys to withstand Mercian dominance and maintain its cultural identity, even as it adapted to the military and political realities of its location.
Internal Strengths and Cultural Influence
Powys was more than a military buffer; it was a cultural hub, with a strong tradition of storytelling, poetry, and artistry that celebrated Welsh identity. The court of Powys was known for its patronage of bards and poets, who played a significant role in preserving Welsh language and heritage. The artistic and cultural contributions from Powys left an indelible mark on Welsh identity, helping to foster a sense of unity and pride that transcended political borders. This cultural resilience would later become vital as Wales faced even greater threats from England.
Powys’s role as a kingdom at the crossroads highlights the delicate balance Welsh rulers maintained between resistance and adaptation. While Powys often found itself overshadowed by more powerful neighbours, its legacy as a protector of Welsh culture and independence remained significant. The challenges faced by Powys served as a microcosm for the broader struggles of the Old Welsh Kingdoms, each striving to preserve autonomy in a world of shifting alliances and external pressures.
A Legacy of Laws and Governance
Welsh bards played an essential role in preserving and promoting Welsh history, language, and identity through oral tradition. They were more than entertainers—they were keepers of cultural memory.”
— Geraint Jenkins, “A Concise History of Wales”
One of the most enduring contributions from the Old Welsh Kingdoms was the establishment of a unified legal code, particularly under the rule of Hywel Dda. While Welsh kingdoms were often fragmented and embroiled in conflicts, Hywel’s legal reforms provided a framework for justice and governance that transcended regional boundaries and laid the foundation for a unified Welsh identity.
Hywel Dda’s Vision of Unity Through Law
Known as Hywel the Good, Hywel Dda ruled over Deheubarth in the early 10th century and sought to bring stability and fairness to Welsh society. His vision extended beyond warfare; he believed that a well-organised legal system could bring order to the fragmented Welsh kingdoms. The laws he implemented were notable for their progressive nature, emphasising justice, fairness, and equality. Rather than imposing strict hierarchical systems, Hywel’s laws recognised the rights of ordinary people, addressing issues such as inheritance, property rights, and even the protection of women and children.
The Welsh Legal Code
Hywel’s code, often referred to as Cyfraith Hywel (the Law of Hywel), covered a range of social and moral issues, offering a structured approach to governance that contrasted with the more arbitrary systems in place elsewhere. The Welsh legal code was unique in its focus on mediation and restitution rather than punishment. For instance, disputes over property or family matters were often resolved through compensation rather than physical retribution, a concept that was progressive for the time. This legal framework became an important unifying force, as it applied to multiple regions within Wales and established common ground among the kingdoms.
Influence and Longevity of the Laws
Hywel Dda’s laws were so highly regarded that they persisted for centuries, even under later English rule. The Welsh legal code not only provided a sense of structure but also reinforced a distinct Welsh identity that valued justice and fairness. These laws set Wales apart from neighbouring Anglo-Saxon legal systems, creating a legacy of governance that fostered respect for local customs and community values. Even after Hywel’s death, his laws remained a cornerstone of Welsh society, influencing Welsh governance and identity long after the Old Welsh Kingdoms had faded.
Hywel Dda’s legal reforms were a testament to his vision of unity. By providing a legal foundation that transcended individual kingdoms, he helped lay the groundwork for a unified Welsh identity based on shared values and governance. His legacy serves as a reminder that the Old Welsh Kingdoms were not merely defined by warfare but also by their contributions to civilisation and justice.
Key Takeaways
1. The Fragmented Yet Resilient Welsh Landscape: The Old Welsh Kingdoms were shaped by geographical isolation and the necessity to defend against both internal rivalries and external threats. Each kingdom—Powys, Gwynedd, and Dyfed (later Deheubarth)—brought a unique contribution to Welsh identity, whether through military strength, cultural preservation, or governance.
2. Influence of Key Figures: Leaders like Rhodri Mawr and Hywel Dda symbolised the aspirations of Welsh unification. Rhodri’s military prowess against Viking invaders set the stage for Welsh resilience, while Hywel Dda’s legal reforms laid the foundation for a structured and just society.
3. External Pressures and Alliances: The Vikings and Anglo-Saxons were constant external pressures, pushing the Welsh to adapt their military strategies and political alliances. The need to balance autonomy with pragmatic alliances highlighted the diplomacy and adaptability of Welsh rulers.
4. A Legacy of Law and Culture: Beyond military defence, the Old Welsh Kingdoms contributed significantly to Welsh culture and governance. The legal code established by Hywel Dda served as a unifying force that brought stability and promoted a Welsh identity based on fairness and justice.
Old Welsh Kingdoms: A Foundation for Modern Wales
The legacy of the Old Welsh Kingdoms goes beyond the individual achievements of kings or the battles fought against Vikings and Anglo-Saxons. This era, marked by both division and unity, set the foundation for the cultural identity and national consciousness that would shape Wales for centuries. The fragmented but resilient Welsh kingdoms preserved a distinct cultural and linguistic heritage, with values centred around kinship, honour, and justice.
A Distinctive Welsh Identity
During this period, the Welsh kingdoms were largely autonomous, governed by their own customs, language, and laws, distinct from the Anglo-Saxon societies to the east. The development of Cyfraith Hywel, the Welsh legal code, emphasised a society governed by fairness and communal responsibility. This established a sense of identity rooted in justice, respect for tradition, and the protection of community interests. These values would persist even as Wales faced English conquest in later centuries.
Preservation of Language and Culture
Unlike many other regions that assimilated under larger kingdoms, the Welsh held tightly to their language and traditions, even under external pressure. The courts of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth became centres of Welsh culture, where bards, poets, and historians documented the deeds of kings and celebrated the uniqueness of the Welsh people. These cultural traditions, preserved through oral storytelling and written texts like the Mabinogion, became the backbone of Welsh national identity. The resilience of the Welsh language and cultural heritage owes much to the era of the Old Welsh Kingdoms, where the preservation of Welshness was not only an act of survival but one of pride.
Influence on Later Welsh Movements
The unity and identity forged during this period laid the groundwork for later Welsh resistance against English rule. Figures like Owain Glyndŵr, who led a rebellion in the 15th century, drew inspiration from the Old Welsh Kingdoms’ struggle for autonomy and self-governance. Even in modern Wales, the reverence for leaders like Rhodri Mawr and Hywel Dda, and the values they embodied, continue to be celebrated. The era of the Old Welsh Kingdoms is seen as a golden age, one that exemplifies the strength, resilience, and unity of the Welsh people.
The Old Welsh Kingdoms provided Wales with more than historical heroes—they left a legacy of pride, cultural richness, and a foundation upon which future generations could build. The unity, identity, and values that were fostered during this era remain central to Welsh identity, even as Wales continues to navigate its role within the United Kingdom today.
Conclusion: A Legacy That Endures
The era of the Old Welsh Kingdoms was defined by fierce independence, resilience, and a commitment to cultural preservation. While Wales never unified under a single monarchy as England did, the strength of these early kingdoms laid a foundation of shared identity that endures. Leaders like Rhodri Mawr and Hywel Dda are celebrated not only for their political achievements but also for their vision of a cohesive Wales—one that could defend itself, govern with fairness, and preserve its rich traditions.
The struggles, alliances, and legal reforms of the Old Welsh Kingdoms have woven a lasting tapestry, illustrating the complexities of Welsh history and the values that would shape the nation. Even in a world vastly changed, the Welsh draw strength and pride from this era, seeing in it the seeds of unity and identity that continue to inspire today.
In revisiting the stories of the Old Welsh Kingdoms, we uncover not only a history of power struggles and alliances but a profound reminder of what it means to belong to a land that has fiercely defended its culture, language, and people.
if you fancy watching a great visual representation of Early Welsh Kingdoms, you can check out the below.
Matt
